The existence of the religious and/or ethnic minorities, specializing in trade, (in general sense - in free enterpreneurship) is a world-wide phenomenon. As a rule, not only migrants, but also their descendants are aliens, as far as the local majority is concerned. In this sense, a special role of Caucasian and Chinese diasporas in the modern Russia is not an exception, but a continuation of a rather numerous typological series. The comprehension of their experience would be very useful for understanding the situation in Russia.

Naturally, there are great distinctions between the separate components of this series. These distinctions are conditioned mostly by the sociocultural characteristics and the peculiarities of the historical development both of these groups and host societies.

Russia is unique in this sense, because the transition to the market practice occurs in the urban industrial (postindustrial) society with corresponding sociocultural characteristics of the population. At the same time, Russia has much in common with the foreign East countries in the context of the problem to be considered1. It is, e.g. a time coherence between the process of forming market relations, and the establishment or radical transformation of the state system, as well as with a search of new identity and as a result, the development of national feelings and the aggravation of conflicts.

At an empirical level, in routine consciousness, the very fact of the existence of such groups, the specificity of their structure and activity, life style, value orientations and the specific relations with surrounding groups were registered long ago. This was promoted by the fact that the “commercial minorities” were an object of rapt and jealous-hostile attitude.

However, for a long time these qualities were associated (and are often associated) with their concrete bearers, and were ascribed to their “origin”. A scientific comprehension of the phenomenon started from the same statements. The first hypothesises and general conclusions were made on the basis of Jewish material.

V. Sombart considered the market specialization and enterpreneurial spirit to be an extraordinary manifestation of their sociocultural and religious specificity. “The modern capitalism in itself is nothing but the emanation of the Jewish spirit”, he wrote (Sombart, 1912:52).

However, in the 20th century, the European scientists were convinced that the Jews as a “commercial nation” were not an exception, the “Jewish phenomenon” being not unique. The popularity of the phenomenon in different societies indicates the public necessity and demand for such groups and the existence of a social-economic niche, that was filled. K. Marks was the first who assumed this and noted that the very existence of traditional agricultural communities demands an appearance of special “commercial nations” (Marks, 1954).

Later on, the famous sociologist G. Simmel arrived at this notion and said in his essay “An Alien” (1908) that in whole of the world history, a merchant is always an alien, and an alien is almost always a merchant who is to be an alien. That is why in agricultural society, he is an alien not as an individual, but as a part of a national, religious or caste group (Simmel, 1971:143-150). There were some professions, spheres of employment and social roles, which were preferred to leave for “aliens” in the traditional society with its complicated, rigid hierarchy and differentiation of labor, provided by the law and custom.

On the other hand, the conception of M. Weber of the stimulating role of the very position of the discriminated, not enjoying full rights low-status minority in business seems to be rather productive.

When analysing the system of relations called by G.Furnivall “pluralistic society” (Furnivall, 1967:304), one can mention the “symbiosis” term which is appropriate in this context. It also stipulates very close social links, the integration of the groups under consideration into the united system of social hierarchy with a set of strictly fixed mutual rights and obligations (Wertheim, 1964; Dishen, 1984:233).

It is the relations of symbiosis, that can explain the fact that the “commercial minorities” - scanty, low-status, politically weak and unprotected, rich (or seemed to be rich) groups - showed an amazing sustainability, an ability to survive in the world which did not guarantee life safety and property for all, and for them in particular. The rotation was taking place permanently: families, clans and communities were being replaced by the others.

“Commercial minorities” played an important role in the times of market transformations. As hereditary bearers of the market values, professional skills and life style, they created a reserve for the impetuous and rapid spurt: great capital, an ability and striving for its advantageous using, experience, knowledge, relations, effectively working infrastructure, where goods, credits and business information were circulating.

Moreover, the impulses of market transformation, its philosophy, experience and mechanisms came (and often were imposed) from the outside - from the advanced in this sense Western countries. This process, especially its early stages, needed a kind of a “junction”, with a help of which the traditional societies could be connected to the world economy most effectively. “Commercial minorities”, with their market mentality, an ability in adaptation, which was developing over the centuries, an aptitude for coping with new realities and their great experience of organic existence in the heterogeneous ethnic, cultural and value milieus, came to be ideal candidates for this.

The discussion on the objective public claiming for the “commercial minorities” brings to a question: which groups and because of what circumstances can appear in their role? This question is still open. As it was mentioned above, at first the answer was searched in some natural, initial characteristics of particular groups (Jews, first of all). The increase in the number of minorities called into question such an approach.

However, there must be an inclination, an aspiration and a readiness, so as to become a “commercial minority”. This is obvious from the cases when foreign national immigrant minorities rush to other spheres of employment. One can mention the Gypsies, who succeeded in finding there own niche in Europe and who overstep its limits rather unwillingly. The level of commodity-monetary development and business mentality in the “historical homeland” is, as a rule, higher than in the host society.

Apparently, not only the situation in the host society and some initial qualities of the groups under consideration actively influence the formation of “commercial minorities”, but also the qualities and features which the latter acquire in the process of adaptation. It is, in the first turn, a aforementioned position of an “alien”, an outsider. It can be based upon different circumstances: non-autochthonity, sociocultural, religious and nation distinctions. In any case they exceed the limits of social connections and obligations.

The life in a host society predefined the qualities, contributing to a business success. These qualities are clearly demonstrated by immigrant communities. The very fact of migration, meaning “a leap in the dark”, the isolation from the family and the accustomed way and rhythm of life, raised dramatically the value of such human qualities as mobility, dynamism, enterprise, the ability to adopt to the new and changing circumstances of life. To survive in a foreign and hostile world and to achieve a success, it was necessary to learn quickly the language and the customs of a host society, to acquire acquaintances, connections, contacts. The mandatory qualities of the members of “commercial minorities” are the ability to live in a foreign world, to shift easily from one conditions to others, from one language to another, the readiness to master new things.

The corporative and communal mode of life was a guarantee of their survival and identity preservation. It seems to be a key characteristic of the groups under scrutiny. It was simply impossible to survive in an alien surrounding without uniting with a group, without the branched system of norms, rules of behavior, institutions, networks, the strong hierarchy and patronage structures, a strong mutual control and severe sanctions to infringers. This status was not the object of a free choice. The communal mode and the groups’ hierarchy were the universal way of the traditional society organization. It referred to a host society as well as a society of origin. Primarily, a host society treated the migrants-”aliens” as a group, and they had to correspond to this attitude.

Corporativism and communal solidarity were not only the exclusive and natural form of the life organization, not only the criterion of the survival in an alien and hostile world and the means of integration in a host society, but also the important precondition of a business success. Commercial and financial structures functioned effectively in the frames of the communities and on their basis. Sometimes they embraced great distances, concentrated the amount of resources, enormous for their time. Being an effective economic unit, the family clan could include bankers, traders-wholesalers, manufacturers and Cheap Jacks. Goods, finances and information circulated along this chain. The credit inside a community was considered especially important. As a rule, it was given without backing - the best guarantee was a mutual bail of families and clans and the possibility to apply the severest sanctions to unfair partners, right down to boycott and ostracism. In case of need there was always a possibility to concentrate all the community resources for the realization of large projects.

Only family, clan and community could provide a certain level of social stability by means of charity and mutual aid. Communities supported widows, orphans, lonely elderly people, they financed the education of poor but talented pupils and students. A beginner, who had been professionally trained at the relatives’ enterprise, could receive from them an interest-free credit to start a business.

The important function of a community was also the moral approval of the business efforts of the community members and the elaboration and maintenance of the system of values. A community accumulated and translated the experience of generations, including a business experience. Only being a member, one could feel protected, supported and understood.

The history of “commercial minorities” shows that the very fact of their existence becomes a powerful conflict factor. There have been significant changes in the intensity of conflicts, their forms, manifestations, the composition of participants, the real reasons and uttered accusations. At the same time, there are some general characteristics, dispersed in space and time through the diversity of certain situations and the experience of different groups.

The socio-cultural distance was a sufficient reason for misunderstanding and the clashes with minorities. Different appearance, life style, a type of behavior, different religion, language, customs and traditions are being often interpreted as a challenge and threat. It becomes especially evident in the cases when minorities are new comers, when they are not rooted in a host society, when their alien nature has not yet become customary, recognized and legitimated. .

The economic specialization of minorities was also a great conflict potential. The trade itself is a conflict source, in spite of its indubitable and recognized utility. It always seems to a purchaser that the goods are too expensive, and a seller swindles him for his own benefit.

Trade, finances, handicrafts are not only economic branches. It is a separate world with its own value system, the type of economic behavior, professional and public skills, a special life style. This world can be called a business world. It was and still is in a conflict with a patriarchal world. The business world rates highly the entrepreneurial abilities, dynamism, the ability and desire to make money; in this world money serve a criterion of success. From the positions of the patriarchal world, the business world looks heartless, fussy and unfair. Trade is not considered to be a valuable and socially significant occupation. It is rather a way of wasting time, the life at the expenses of the others, the unfair distribution of wealth. It is not occasional that in a contemporary Russian society the phrase “nobody works, everybody trades” has become a daily life expression. It is the remains of an ancient, deep-rooted point of view, the evidence of a patriarchal layer in social psychology.

The market transformation in a host society, when a former patriarchal majority tries to join the entrepreneurial professions and the life style, opens a new conflict dimension. The specialization of “commercial minorities”, their unique knowledge and experience, their psychology, value orientations, material sources, communal infrastructures - all these factors gives them an advantage in competitive activity, leaving very little chances to the beginners.

Many politicians and statesmen have quickly understood that the problem of “commercial minorities” can be effectively used as an instrument of political mobilization in the struggle for power. The hatred to these groups became an important means of national consolidation and a tool to overcome internal contradictions. For those who were in power these groups appeared to be useful as a “scapegoat”, an easy and visible cause of all troubles. There is a clear pattern: the issues of “Asians”, Jews, Armenians etc. becomes highly problematized in the times of instability and economical and political crisises.

A widespread way was to create the intolerable conditions, squeezing “commercial minorities” out of a country. These measures included different law limitations, administrative cavils and discrimination in a public life and economic activity. The authorities did not pay attention or openly encouraged the chauvinistic hysteria which unavoidably led to open conflicts.

However, supporting this tension, the authorities are willing to provide “commercial minorities” with legal guarantees (to ease citizenship conditions, to remove the limitations of rights) and with the favorable conditions for economical activity. For the minorities it opens the perspectives of integration in a local life and local economic structures. The capitals becomes legalized, their export diminishes and the long-terms investments raise. It is economically profitable, it also gives an opportunity to demonstrate the loyalty to a new home country by contributing in the economic development and to minimize the competition with local business circles.

It is necessary to emphasize once more that the scales and the races of this process are strongly dependent on the degree of stability and security in a country. Foreign traders leave their new homeland very reluctantly. To make them do this, it is not enough to have a set of discriminatory and restrictive measures. They can consider this extreme option only if there is a real threat to their lives, i.e. the situation of a mass pogrom or the real danger of it. The reasons for this attitude are clear: it is an emotional attachment to the places where they and their parents were born and grew up; a rational understanding that nobody is waiting for them in their historical homeland. And above all, there is a clear realization that they would not have such a profitable business at any other place.

Thus, the foreign traders have learned how to act effectively not only in fairly favorable conditions, but also in the risk situations. It is obvious that in the latter case they do not care much about perspectives. The aim is to get as much profit as possible in the shortest period of time and to transfer the incomes abroad or to turn them in the “shadow economy” spheres. There is no question of paying taxes and long-term investments. The experience has showed that all obstacles and limitations are quite easy to overcome. The mechanism to do this is corruption. The more a number of state restrictions on the activities of “commercial minorities”, the more it tries to discriminate them, the stronger the corruption system becomes. At the same time, such an approach does not meet the interests of the groups under consideration. Economically and socially they are interested in stability, security, protection and the maximal legality of their business.

The “commercial minorities” have demonstrated their utility in the new conditions of the national state building and market modernization. So they have provided themselves with a possibility to survive and function. The experience of a modern Russia shows their pioneering role in the market economy.

The future of “commercial minorities” can be forecast, relying on the experience of postindustrial societies. In the process of their market development the public demand for the groups, specializing in certain business spheres, had disappeared. Society became atomic, is got rid of the community style as a main principle of its structure. In other words, in this quality “commercial minorities” concluded their function and moved to the periphery of a public life. However, it does not mean the disappearance of ethnic or religious communities.

It is interesting that “commercial minorities” continue to exist in postindustrial societies as some marginal phenomenon. However it is not caused by the demand of a host country, it is dictated by the needs of the new immigrants’ groups. Corporativism and the community-based business become an effective mechanism of their adaptation and integration in an alien world. Usually it is typical for the new comers from the societies where community institutions are well developed, first of all, for the migrants from the Eastern countries. The USA experience has showed that this situation is changing. Thus, the phenomenon of “commercial minority” can become only the stage in the life of a diaspora in the postindustrial world.

These findings rise the question of the perspectives of this phenomenon in Russia. On the one hand, our society is industrial and, in some aspects, postindustrial, but on the other hand, it has just entered (or it is coming back) the way of market development. It seems that the question of the existence and functions of “commercial minorities” remains open.